Read Now ». This edition has been revised and the contents assessed and recreated to meet current and future needs of the profession. This volume, the newest volume in the Time-Saver Standards Series, offers easily referenced and detailed technical guidelines for architects and builders to design and select any material, product or system for any building construction This is a worthy competitor to Architectural graphic standards.
It is illustrated with hundreds of plans, diagrams, tables, and schematics which help in the design of more functional, meaningful, and interesting buildings. Structural forces xxiv Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Design Data Components of envelopes exposed to solar radiation gain heat and expand proportionately to their individual coefficients of expansion.
Components adjacent to them but not thus exposed may re- Introduction main at constant temperature and not expand at all: when such components are continuously attached to each other, they may fail due to differential movement.
Heat and cold Heat will flow through the envelope whenever a temperature differential exists between outside and inside surfaces. Such flow of heat must be controlled whenever the interior environment of an enclosure has to be maintained within limits of comfort: - Flow of heat cannot be stopped entirely, but is impeded by insulation.
Completely preventing air leakage can seldom, if ever, be achieved. Moisture Air leaking through the envelope will transport water vapor. Water vapor will also migrate from an area of higher vapor pressure to an area with lower vapor pressure, and will condense upon reaching the dew point. Condensation may occur within the envelope, which may lead to damage and possible failure of the envelope.
Rain water may be drawn into or through an envelope by differences in air pressure across the skin. Wind pressures against the exterior surfaces will be greater than interior air pressures, and such difference then becomes the driving force for water and air penetration into the interior.
Sound Transmission of external sound through an envelope may have to be controlled for the comfort of the occupants. Transmission of sound through a barrier is inversely proportional to the mass of the barrier; light envelopes will be less effective than heavy ones.
Any opening in the envelope will effectively destroy it usefulness as a barrier to sound transmission. Generally, the interior structural assemblies of an enclosure are required by building codes to be fire-resistant rated for a specific time interval. Environmental forces Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Design Data xxv Introduction The Shell B1 Elements of a building superstructure The forces upon all building superstructures are defined by design loads, predicted from gravity and environmental forces described above.
The most common structural materials are wood, steel, concrete and masonry, each described in separate articles in Part II, Chapter B1. Modern construction materials and applications include tensioned fabric structures, used for large span assembly spaces, and air-supported structures for temporary and partial occupancy applications Fig. Primary horizontal elements are referred to as girders. Vertical elements which support them are columns.
Secondary vertical elements are referred to as framing. A roof or floor assembly, whether alone or combined with framing to support it, is referred to as the deck or decking. Girders Girders may be: Fig. Elements of structure xxvi Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Design Data - Solid web, also often referred to as beams of various materials, such as structural steel; solid or laminated wood; or reinforced concrete.
Primary horizontal supports may also be walls which combine girders and columns into one element called bearing walls, or portions of walls may function as columns commonly referred to as pilasters, to support point loads, such as by girders.
This type of structure, including arches, vaults and domes, are highly efficient for materials that have strength in compression, because it transmits gravity and lateral loads acting upon it essentially in compression, without bending or twisting. The curvature is principally influenced by requirements of load transfer; shapes may be barrel arches, domes, cones, hyperbolic paraboloids.
Historical examples are of adobe and masonry. Reinforced concrete is most commonly used in modern building construction. Tensioned fabric structures Modern fabric materials and tensioned structures combine to offer a new technology for spanning and enclosing large volume spaces, with permanent, temporary and convertible variations.
This class of structure, derivative of the traditional tent structure but utilizing the tensile strength of modern synthetic fabrics, has developed over the past thirty years and is made increasingly practical by improved analysis techniques and applications. Because they are lightweight, tensioned fabric structures are efficient in long span applications. Air-supported structures Air-supported structures are an alternative enclosure system, most commonly used for temporary or partial use.
Interior is always under positive pressure and provisions to maintain such pressure are required at all penetrations through the membrane.
Interior of air inflated enclosure is at atmospheric pressure. Continued Elements of structure Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Design Data xxvii Introduction B2 Exterior enclosure The building enclosure is a continuous air and watertight barrier, maintained to separate the contained environment from that external to it.
The barrier or envelope consists of a wall enclosure and roofing assembly covering the contained space Figs. Walls and roofs may be separate distinct elements, or essentially one, without any clear differentiation between them. Design of building enclosures includes considerations of: - thermal insulation, - building movement, - moisture control, - corrosion of materials, especially metals.
Complete exterior wall enclosures and assemblies include: - wall systems. The composition of a wall system and assembly commonly includes: - Structural core: to resist gravity loads of the assembly itself, those that might be superimposed upon it, and lateral loads. The structural core may be a separate component such as framing or the core may function as the complete wall assembly.
Exterior facing may be a separate component attached to and supported by the structural core, or it may be an integral part of such core. Wall assemblies may be variously described and classified by one or several of the following characteristics: Fig. Wall elements xxviii Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Design Data - Bearing walls: carrying superimposed gravity loads in addition to their own weight.
Backup walls may be bearing, nonbearing, or curtain. Facings may be: off-site fabricated panels or units such as metal; or faced composite panels, or ceramic tile units assembled on site or made on-site, such as stucco. Introduction - Masonry walls may be described as: composite when consisting of two or more wythes of masonry where at least one wythe is dissimilar to other wythes or; cavity of two wythes of masonry built to provide an air space within the wall.
B3 Roofing Roof assemblies, described in Part II Chapter B3, commonly include: - roofing or roofing membrane to resist the effects of environmental factors, especially water proofing.
Roof decks may be: - decking or substrate, only when such decking is capable of spanning between widely spaced primary supports without the need for any secondary framing: Long-span decking may be considered as combining decking and framing in one when its span exceeds an arbitrary maximum of eight feet.
Roofing elements Rigid roof assemblies may be flat, pitched, curved; or in any combination. Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Design Data xxix Introduction Interiors C1 Interior construction Interior constructions include ceiling, partition and interior door and wall panel and flooring systems Fig.
Due to the need for changes in internal space arrangements, especially in modern office buildings, all elements of interior construction need to be accessible and flexible in rearrangement, replacement and upgrading, such as through dropped ceiling and raised flooring systems. Ceilings systems Ceiling systems are nonstructural components of an enclosure.
Depending on their support on floor or roof assemblies. Partitions The space within an envelope may be fully or partly divided by partitions to: - control movement through enclosed space.
Partitions may be: - of different heights: below eye level, to above eye level, to ceiling, or to underside of floor or roof assembly above: - fixed, relocatable, or operable; supported on, or suspended from floor or roof assemblies: - when supported, they are capable of carrying their own weight, but generally not superimposed loads. Floors Floors are flat, commonly horizontal surfaces within the envelope of an enclosure. Flooring finishes and their substrates may be subject to heavy use.
Floor assemblies include: - flooring: to resist the effects of traffic over the surface of the floor deck. C2 Staircases Staircases are provided for convenience of access and communication between levels of a building, and are determined to meet standards of emergency egress and refuge areas, universal design and accessibility.
Interior constructions. Note: Moving systems for circulation and conveyance are classified under Services xxx Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Design Data - stairs for foot traffic. D2 Plumbing All buildings housing human activity must be provided with portable water in quantities sufficient to meet the needs of the occupants and related activities.
Plumbing system design is best conceived as part of a water conservation plan: fresh water is a critical health and environmental issue and can be aided by use of water conserving plumbing within buildings and design of landscaping features that retain and filter water in its path to the local aquifer.
D3 Heating and air conditioning HVAC HVAC design consists of mechanically assisted systems to control of temperature, humidity and the quality of air within an enclosure, at comfort levels acceptable to the occupants. HVAC systems generally include: - Heating plant to supply sufficient heat to replace that transmitted and lost to the exterior through the envelope.
D5 Electrical systems Electrical systems include electric power, telephone and communications, and electrical specialties, such as audio-visual and security systems. These systems have experienced rapid improvement and development, indicated in the articles in Part II Electrical systems.
Design of lighting provides an opportunity for energy conservation and improved human comfort, productivity and amenity, especially when carefully integrated with daylighting. Salmen Elaine Ostroff Time-Saver Standards: Part I, Architectural Fundamentals 1 1 Universal design and accessible design 2 Time-Saver Standards: Part I, Architectural Fundamentals Universal design accessible design Universaland design and accessible design 1 1 Summary: Universal design is an approach to architectural design that considers the entire range of capacities and potentials of people and how they use buildings and products throughout their lives.
The approach goes beyond technical standards that provide only minimal accessibility in compliance with regulations and extends design to increase the capacities of men, women and children of all ages and abilities. Key words: accessibility, Americans with Disabilities Act, disability, ergonomics, human factors, universal design. Creating places for people. Public rest seats with differentiated heights.
Davis, CA. Brian Donnelly Design. What is universal design? All people experience changes in mobility, agility, and perceptual acuity throughout their life spans, from childhood to adulthood. At any time in our lives, we may experience temporary or permanent physical or psychological impairments which may be disabling and which may increase our dependence upon certain aspects of the physical environment. In addition, people are diverse in size, preferences and abilities.
Universal design responds to these conditions and potentials and seeks to extend the human capacity by accommodation supported by the designed environment. Universal design also recognizes that within the long life span of a building-properly conceived as a fifty- to one hundred-year life cycle or longer, the average and standard norms of human dimensions and capacities are changing. In the U. This suggests anticipation of changing dimensional and safety standards to respond to the demographics of our society.
What passed as minimal height requirements fifty years ago accommodates a decreasing portion of the population. Accommodation to an older population requires increased design sensitivity to sensory and mobility impairments. Unlike accessible design, there are no regulations which define or enforce universal design.
Instead, architects and landscape architects sensitive to the issues of universal design recognize that everyone at some time in their life is likely to experience a disabling condition, thus requiring increased accommodation by design. Universal design involves both a design sensitivity and sensibility that seek to understand and support the full range of human capacities.
Ergonomics and human factor analysis, an applied anthropometric approach to design pioneered beginning in the s by Henry Dreyfuss and Alvin R. Tilley Henry Dreyfuss Associates are part of the inherited discipline and ethic of universal design. Universal design goes beyond any static conception and seeks to enable and enhance the changing abilities of humans throughout their life span, and the changing demographics of our society as we move into the 21st Century.
Universal design makes designer, user and building owner more sensitive to what can be done to improve the long-term quality of what we build. Design and long-term building quality is improved by designing for easier access, reduced accidents, easier wayfinding and transit of people and goods, and design details for people of all ages, sizes, and capacities.
Demographics The need and demand for universally designed spaces and products is much larger than the current population of 49 million people with disabilities in the U. Everyone over their lifetime will experience some temporary or permanent disability. The market includes children, people who must move around with luggage or other encumbrances, people with temporary disabilities and especially older people.
The aging baby-boom generation is undoubtedly the true beneficiary of universal design for three reasons. Fact: It costs no more to universally design a space or product. It does take more thinking and attention to the users. Such steps normally pay for themselves many times over in reduced design failure and reduced costs of changing environments after they are built.
Through thinking through all uses, the long term durability and usefulness of a design is increased. Authors: John P. References: Barrier Free Environments. Fair Housing Design Manual. Publication B Fair Housing Clearing House. Henry Dreyfuss Associates. New York: Whitney Library of Design.
Department of Justice. Additional references and resources are listed at the end of this article. Fact: The number of people who benefit from universal design is very great. All individuals have special conditions and requirements at different times of life. Universal design considers those needs and abilities recognizing people with disabilities, as well as young and aging individuals, plus those who associate with and assist them. Universal design addresses the users over their entire life span for the building or product over its entire life span.
Population Age 65 and older Sources: U. Fact: Universal design seeks to accommodate difference and variation, not minimally acceptable averages.
Strategies may include adjustable or interchangeable elements, designing spaces so that they can be easily customized, and allowing flexibility of use, although sometimes a single solution may fit all. Guidelines for universal design The following principles describe guidelines for universal design developed by the Center for Universal Design , whose web page listed in the additional references illustrates applications.
Henry Dreyfuss Associates provides a number of templates for ergonomic analysis of hand and body for design of furniture and environmental settings.
What is accessible design? Accessible design is design that meets standards that allow people with disabilities to enjoy a minimum level of access to environments and products. Since with the passage of the Fair Housing Amendments Act, and in with the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act ADA , accessibility standards now cover much of what is newly constructed or renovated.
These minimum requirements provide a baseline that universal designers can build upon. Universal design and accessible design 1 People are so diverse and adaptable that design standards to quantify how people use objects and spaces must be general.
Accessibility standards have simplified this overwhelming diversity down to three main groups of conditions shown below with the related component of the environment.
By understanding the physical implications of these broad groups of disabling conditions designers can understand the criteria in the building codes and standards. This includes vision, hearing and speech impairments including total and partial loss of function and leads us to the design recommendation for redundancy of communication media to insure that everyone can receive information and express themselves over communication systems.
For example, reinforcing both lighting and circulation cues, wayfinding can be enhanced. Or by providing both audible and visual alarms, everyone will be able to know when an emergency occurs. Renovated entry landscape with sloping walkway and outdoor seating platform to Hunnewell Visitors Center at the Arnold Arboretum.
Jamaica Plain, MA. Carol R. Johnson Associates, Landscape Architects. Dexterity impairments: Design of operating controls and hardware. In addition, this addresses the location of equipment and controls so that they are within the range of reach of people who use wheelchairs and those who are of short stature. This includes people who use walkers, crutches, canes and wheelchairs plus those who have difficulty climbing stairs or going long distances.
The T-turn and 5 ft. These concepts and the accessible route of travel insure that all people have accessible and safe passage from the perimeter of a site to and through all areas of a facility. Conflicting Criteria Accessibility has overlapping regulations and civil rights implications as established by U. Designers face the challenge of sorting out the specific accessibility regulations that apply to their work as well as of understanding the purpose and the technical requirements.
In addition to overarching federal standards required by the ADA, each state has its own access regulations. There is a concerted national effort to adopt more uniform, harmonious regulations, but designers must be aware that if elements of the state regulation are more stringent, they supersede the federal standard. In addition, the civil rights aspect of both the Fair Housing Amendments Act and the ADA establish requirements that go beyond the technical requirements.
For example, the new requirement in the ADA to attempt barrier removal in existing buildings even when no renovations are planned is not detailed in the Standards but is discussed in the full ADA regulation Department of Justice The professional responsibilities and liability of the designer are being redefined through these regulations. Applications of these regulations as defined by ADA language are interpreted by evolving legal case law and in resulting guidelines, such as those of U.
The universal design process The issues raised by accessibility regulations are best addressed and combined in a commitment to universal design. The more one knows Fig. Entry terrace modifications, including ramp and handrails, blending with historic design.
Nichols Design Associates, Architects. Time-Saver Standards: Part I, Architectural Fundamentals 5 1 Universal design and accessible design as a designer, the better the resulting design. But universal design considerations are as complex and in a sense as unpredictable as the variety of human experience and capacities.
No one knows it all. This simple fact demands that the approach to universal design involve many people representing a range of insights from the beginning of the programming and design process. Designers cannot get such information from books, databases or design criteria alone. Designers must involve the future users, the customers of the design, through universal design reviews.
Universal design reviews undertaken at critical early and evolving phases of the design process are opportunities to improve any design, eliminate errors, improve its user friendliness and at the same time involve and thus satisfy the special needs of owners and occupants of the resulting building.
Because no one person can anticipate all possible perceptions and needs, a design should be given broad discussion and review, with input from many points of view. Designers must listen to and hear from perceptive spokespeople who can articulate the needs and responses of: Fig. Signage with raised tactile and visual guide, including textures of water and trees as map to public park, which also includes wind chimes for aural orientation.
Moore Iacofano Goltsman, Landscape Architects. This requires that the process of universal design be broadly representative, user responsive and participatory. Because many lay persons cannot visualize actual conditions from plans or drawings, universal designing reviews may require alternative media including threedimensional models, virtual reality simulations, and, in some cases, full scale mock up prototypes, whereby all can experience, critically evaluate and offer ways to improve a design in process.
The more diverse the group, the better. It is only in this way that designers can keep up with and come to understand how our changing culture will be using our environments and products in the 21st century. Examples of universal design In , the National Endowment for the Arts and the National Building Museum sponsored a search for examples of universal design in the fields of architecture, interior design, landscape architecture, graphic design and industrial design.
Public toilet accommodating all users including families. Automatic sensor controls of plumbing. Visual and tactile operating instructions in various languages. San Francisco, CA.
Some the best examples of special design are almost invisible to see because they blend in so well with their environmental context. Design inspirations such as those revealed in photographs that accompany this article are the best way to convey both the simplicity and complexity of universal design.
They exemplify the principal message of universal design, to extend our design ethic and sensibilities in order to enhance the abilities of all people who will occupy our designs. Universal design and accessible design 1 Additional references and resources U.
Access Board. ADA Accessibility Guidelines. Barrier Free Environments. Center for Universal Design. Principles of Universal Design. Workplace Workbook 2. Pirkl, James. Transgenerational Design. Meandering Brook designed for active water play for children of all capacities.
Talking sign system, providing a directionally-sensitive voice message, including bus schedule, transmitted by infrared light to a hand-held receiver. Dual height viewports for children of all ages in doors, part of wayfinding system at the Lighthouse, New York City, NY. Steven M. Access to the Built Environment: a review of literature. Prepared for U. Publication Universal Designers and Consultants. Images of Excellence in Universal Design. Universal Design Newsletter.
Welch, Polly. Strategies for Teaching Universal Design. Boston, MA: Adaptive Environments. Full length entry sidelight at doorways. Ronald Mace. Swing Clear Hinge, allowing a door to be fully opened for wider access. Gilreath and Associates, Interior Designers. Real Life Design Kitchen including adjustable height appliances and counters, natural light and high contract trim for users with low vision.
Mary Jo Peterson, Interior Design. Design One, Industrial Design. Time-Saver Standards: Part I, Architectural Fundamentals Architecture and regulation: a realization of social ethics 2 2 Architecture and regulation: a realization of social ethics Francis T.
Key words: code of professional conduct, design theory, professional ethics, regulation. Tuberculosis Sanatorium. Paimio, Finland. Alvar Aalto, Architect. Ethics and design are so densely intertwined, so intimately interactive, that ethical issues in architectural pedagogy are almost always arise in the context of a specific design situation. Thus sequestered, however, professional ethics is exposed to not nearly as much scrutiny as is the moral dimension of design work.
Moral development, in other words, is—or should be—an important subsidiary outcome of an architectural education. By design attitude I mean, following Aristotle and C. Pierce and scores of moral philosophers between them, the proposing, effectuating, and evaluating of any action in terms of its consequences.
Not all design theorists subscribe to this definition of design. Nor, for that matter, are all ethicists consequentialists, believing that ethical matters are utterly contingent upon outcomes or results. The distinction, though, may be only momentary. Such a review exceeds the scope of the present article. However, a consideration of the deliberations of one notable designer allows us to examine the stability of these metaethical categories for architecture.
Ventre, Ph. The author thanks Professors Norman Grover, religion, and Scott Poole, architecture, both of Virginia Polytechnic Institute; and Ed Robbins, architecture, of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, who commended on an earlier draft of this essay.
References and notes: [1] Aristotle. Nichomachean Ethics. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. This article is reproduced in many of the anthologies on pragmatism. One is H. Thayer, ed. Pragmatism: The Classic Writings. New York: New American Library. A recent exposition close to the subject of this paper is T. Beauchamp and T. Pinkard, eds. Philip P. New York: Charles Scribners Sons. Theory of the Moral Life. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Time-Saver Standards: Part I, Architectural Fundamentals 11 2 Architecture and regulation: a realization of social ethics argument with recollections, design sketches and photographs of the Paimio Tuberculosis Sanatorium and the Viipuri Municipal Library With modesty emboldened by ethical belief, Aalto argued that the responsible designer must inflict no harm on building users, nor even provide environments unsuitable for their use.
Aalto was drawn to this design to preempt an ethically unacceptable alternative: To provide [an unmodulated] natural or an artificial light which destroys the human eye or is unsuitable for its use means reactionary architecture even if the building should otherwise be of high constructive value.
Municipal Library. Viipuri, Finland. Modulated ceiling to direct sound to rear of auditorium. Viipuri Municipal Library. All Aalto quotes are from his article. Aalto scholar Richard Peters of the University of California, Berkeley, told me, while discussing the Technology Review article, that Aalto had expressed himself much more vividly on these distinctions in several unpublished writings.
Die Wobuung fur dos Existenzminimum. This document provides comparative analyses of typical plans as well as articles and is reproduced with plan annotations in English, in O. Ungers and I. Ungers, eds. Documents of Modern Architecture. Nendeln Liechtenstein Kraus.
Condensed in W. Alvar Aalto: An Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland Press. See Charles Hartschorne and Paul Weiss, eds. Pierce Collected Papers. But they are very close to the human being and hence become more important than problems of much larger scope. Returning from Frankfurt, Aalto conveyed these ideas in lectures, articles, and newspaper interviews as part of his early efforts to spur Finnish society toward its rendezvous with the modern sensibility. I believe it is the latter because, as he did stylistically, Aalto in this case fused opposite tendencies into one.
In metaethical terms, he adopted the consequentialist approach that renders evaluative choice or judgment according to results. This concern prescribed both a universalized obligation and a critical sense of consequences relevant to a specific situational context.
The proposition that the gifted and talented are exempt from such rules of proper conduct would have dismayed Aalto Architecture and regulation: a realization of social ethics 2 as much as it energized Nietzsche and his present-day epigones.
But professional designers do submit to such rules; it is part of what distinguishes professionals from amateurs. Personal, individual advantage—even in the sublimated forms of aesthetic gratification or technical mastery— is not to be gained at the expense of the welfare of the larger social unit.
Aalto went farther: for him, no single user should suffer. Here, indeed, is a contrast with a healthy egoism, an issue we take up again at the close of this discussion. A code of professional ethics renders at this microscale the same kind of inspiration, guidance, and blessing to the commercially advantageous marriage-of-convenience of professional and client that an ecclesiastical ceremony might bring to a marriage. And peccadilloes transpire in ethical firms even as they do in sanctified marriages.
To be sure, these codes of practice are revised from time to time, but not because ethical principles have changed. Rather, expanding technology and evolving social expectations present new dilemmas to the conscientious professional in design and construction. Constitution, a daunting challenge. Callahan and S.
Bok, eds. Ethics Teaching in Higher Education. New York: Plenum. For a discussion of the emergence of novel issues in ethics, see G. New York: Macmillan. July , pp. Time-Saver Standards: Part I, Architectural Fundamentals 13 2 Architecture and regulation: a realization of social ethics court cases or arbitration decisions affecting professionals at work. Teachers of professional ethics courses in schools of planing, design, and construction or, more typically, teachers of the professional practice courses incorporating ethics education, make use of this case material also.
I believe there is a much stronger argument for moving ethical discussion away from the particularities of the individual resolving a moral dilemma.
Town Hall. Saynatsalo, Finland. This institutional approach would direct attention to the ethical values and power relations reflected in the very rule structures and modes of professional discourse within which individual decisions of conscience must work themselves out. All such cases occur and are resolved in a social reference larger and wider than even the most elaborate quandary that the private practitioner experiences.
I propose that the morality of social as contrasted with individual ethics confronts the architectural designer and indeed the entire building community most vividly in the formation and execution of the public policies that frame and create the conditions for design and construction. Regulation: social ethics reified and objectified Societies, usually acting through governments, preempt entire classes of design decisions, restricting and sometimes totally removing areas of design freedom, reserving those decisions to society as a whole, acting through regulatory institutions.
Less developed societies also regulate design and construction, but they tend to employ more diffuse, culture-wide mechanisms rather than special-purpose regulatory agencies. Expression of structural truss. Saynatsalo Town Hall. Regulations, broadly considered, are the means by which societies, using the coercive powers of government, mediate the private actions of individuals. Of course, private actions know other limitations as well. Commercial transactions between informed individuals, for example, are limited by the mutualy-agreed-upon contract.
But contrast those commercial transactions with regulation: the reach of public policy is broad where commercial law is limited; public regulations are coercive where commercial contracts are subject to mutual consent.
Because they are intended to be universally and uniformly applied and coercively enforced, regulations must be carefully circumscribed either by stature, legal precedent, or more significant for innovative designers by technical knowledge. Design and construction are, in short, regulated industries. Building regulations reflect, however imperfectly, a society-wide understanding of what that society expects of its buildings and their environs.
Only when that expectation is shared consensually does it become, at least in democratic states, a moral imperative enforced upon all. Ethics in Planning. And here, exactly, is where postmodernism is most instructively contrasted with modernism. Otherwise, the modernist argument continues, ethics would be merely a state of individual and subjective and possibly solipsistic consciousness. Architecture and regulation: a realization of social ethics 2 Table 1.
An approximate chronology of the widening of the building regulatory purview in the United States. He seems to have abandoned the search for universal solutions and sought situationally or contextually relevant standards for his own work. But what keeps situationally relevant standards from degenerating into solipsism? A partial response to be amplified later in this essay is that designers do not work in isolation and are enjoined from selfindulgence by governmental fiat, by economic imperatives referring both to tighter building budgets and more knowledgeable clients , by constituent and adjacent technologies, and by social sanction.
But who historically has assumed the task of inventing or interpreting what buildings and environments should do and be? Once that vision is articulated, who negotiates it through the wider public discourse that legitimizes emergent community values or public policies in democracies with representative governments?
Table I shows a cursory chronology of nearly a century of community interventions into design and construction practice in the United States, providing some perspective. Regulations have evolved primarily to meet newly sanctioned social needs and secondarily to take advantage of new technological opportunities. But the explosive growth of cities in the nineteenth century forced both a broadening of societal ends and an institutionalization of regulatory means from the s to the present.
Table 1 reveals that the regulatory purview widened to embrace expanding notions of public health, safety, and welfare. These amplifications of the police powers of the state are traceable to both a deeper understanding of phenomena linking environmental stressors of various kinds to health effects and to the effective publicizing employed by public interest advocates near the turn of the twentieth century.
Although J. Archea and B. Connell have shown that the specific technical rationales for some of these Progressive-era reforms are erroneous in the light of current knowledge, the regulations promulgated at the time remain largely intact. What might account for this persistence in the absence of supporting evidence? Is it sheer bureaucratic inertia? I nominate instead the potency of the initial images used by the Progressive-era pamphleteers.
The effect on the EDRA audience of mature researchers was striking. After 90 years and more, those photographs still retained their shock value. So much so that it may be unlikely that the regulations the helped promulgate will soon be repealed.
It is not bureaucratic inertia but persistence in the public that keeps these regulations intact. Are regulations reversible? Zube and G. Advances in Environment, Behavior, and Design. New York: Plenum Press. New York: Doubleday-Anchor. Cognition in Practice. The Social Construction of Mind. London: Macmillan; A. Explanation and Human Action. New York: Pantheon. Time-Saver Standards: Part I, Architectural Fundamentals 15 2 Architecture and regulation: a realization of social ethics achieve the same effect by selective enforcement.
Share This Paper. Background Citations. Methods Citations. Citation Type. Has PDF. Publication Type. More Filters. Temporal playscape design within an existing landscape dynamic. Thesis S. Banda Aceh has developed with historical heritage city. That heritage has through in the kingdom, colonial, and independence period. But that heritage is not managed properly. Research purposes areto … Expand.
0コメント